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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
The United States of America is called by several different names, bothby
people who live there and by people in other countries. These names include the
USA, the United States, the US, the States and America. The official names, the
United States of America, first appears in the Declaration of Independence of
1776, when the country was called ‘the thirteen United States of America’.
Capital
Largest city
Majorlanguage
Government
Area
Population
Monetary unit
Washington, D.C.
New York City
English
Democratic federal republic
3,794,083 ml2 (9,631,418km2)
298 million (US Census Bureau estimate,
2006)
1 US dollar= 100 cents
7.1. The Geography of The United States
The United States is the fourth largest country in the world in land area.
Forty-eight of the fifty states are in the middle of the North American continent
between the Atlantic Ocean on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west. It is
about3000 miles (4800 kilometers) from the east coastto the west coastand about
1500 miles (2400 kilometers) from the Canadian border on the north to the
Mexican border on the south. The island state of Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean,
and the state of Alaska is northwest of Canada.
The map of the next page shows the geography of the United States. The
two main mountain ranges run north and south – the Appalachian Mountains in
the eastern part of the United States and the Rocky Mountains in the west.
Between them are the Great Plains. There is another mountain chain west of the
Rockies – the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade ranges.
The longest river in the United States is the Mississippi. The Missouri and
Ohio Rivers flow into the Mississippi, and the Mississippi flows south into the
Gulf of Mexico. The major rivers in the western part of the United States are
Colorado and the Rio Grande. The highest mountains of the Rockies form the
Continental Divide. Rivers to the east of the divide flow east, and rivers to the
west of it flow into the Pacific Ocean.
The Great Lakes on the northern border of the country are Lake Superior,
Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario. The Great Salt Lake

desert area in the western part of the United States. The Mojave, the Gila,
and the Painted Deserts are in the southwestern part of the country.
(from About the USA, Elain Kirn)
7.2. The Fifty States
The USA is divided into 50 states.
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Postal abbreviations for the states
• Each state has a postal abbreviation of 2 letters that people use when they
address an envelope. The following postalabbreviations are in the same order as
the fifty states above
AL
AK
AZ
AR
CA
CO
CT
DE
FL
GA
HI
ID
IL
IN
IA
KS
KY
LA
ME
MD
MA
MI
MN
MS
MO
MT
NE
NV
NH
NJ
NM
NY
NC
ND
OH
OK
OR
PA
RI
SC
SD
TN
TX
UT
VT
VA
WA
WV
WI
WY
7.3. The Flag of the United States (the Stars and Stripes)
Questions:
1/ How many stars are there in the flag?
2/ What do the stars stand for?
3/ How many stripes are there?
4/ What do the stripes represent?
Answer Key
1. 50
2. 50 states
3. 13
4. 13 original states of America

of the United States
The fifty states in the United States can be divided into nine regions, plus
Alaska and Hawaii, which are separate.
The text below provides the information aboutthe regions. Look at the map
with the names of the regions as well as their resources and products.
The first region on the map is New England , in the Northeast. In New
England , the winters are generally cold and snowy. Summers have a few hotdays.
You can see green mountains and maple trees in New England. You can eat
lobsters and cod fish, especially in Maine and New Hampshire.
Next, moving to the southand west, is the Mid-Atlantic Region. This region
is the financial center of the United States. There are large cities in the region,
such as New York and Philadelphia. There are many historic places in the Mid-
Atlantic Region.
The third region on the map is the Applachian Highland Region. In the
Appalachian Highland, you can find coal mines and horse farms. The mountains
in the west gradually lead into a coastal plain in the east. Winters are cold, and
summers are cool in the mountains. The coastal plain has a moderate climate.
Fourth in Southeast, a center of cotton and peanut farming. The Southeast
Region has a lot of natural pine forests. Summers are very hot, and winters,
generally, are not very cold.
Moving back to the north, the fifth region is the Great Lakes Region. It
contains the industrial center of the country and also produces a lot of dairy
products. Much of the land in this region is very flat. Winters are cold and
summers are hot.
The Heartland, the flat land just to the east ofthe Rockies, is the sixth region
on the map. It is also called the nation’s Bread Basket because ofthe wheat, corn,
and oats grown on large farms there. Winters can be very cold in this region.
The seventh region is called the Southwest. It is a flat, dry area where you
can find cactus, cattle, and oil. The weather is generally hot, except in the
mountains.
There is a lot of mining in the Mountain Region, named for the Rocky
Mountains. There are also large ranches for cattle and sheep in this region.
Winters are very cold in the mountains, and it snows well into the spring months.

ninth region is the Pacific Coast, the center of the
movie and television industry. It has a lot of fruit farming and is cooland rainy in
the northern part.
The last two regions are made up of just one state each. Alaska is cold and
snowy. Oil and fishing are the major industries. Hawaii has palm trees, sugar cane,
and pineapples.
(from Talking about the USA,Janet Giannotti & Suzanne Mele
Szwarcewicz)
7.5. Ten largest metropolitan areas in the United States
Here is a list of the 10 largest metropolitan areas in the United States.
1. New York City, including northern New Jersey and Long Island
2. Los Angeles, California, including Riverside and Orange Country
3. Chicago, Illinois, including Gary, Indiana, and Kenosha, Wisconsin
4. Washington, D.C and Baltimore, Maryland
5. San Francisco, California, including Oakland and San Jose
6. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, including Wilmington, Delaware, and
Atlantic City, New Jersey
7. Boston, Massachusetts, including Brockton, Massachusetts, and Nashua,
New Hampshire
8. Detroit, Michigan, including Ann Arbor and Flint
9. Dallas and Fort Worth, Texas
10. Houston and Galveston, Texas
7.6. Economy
The economic system of the United States can be described as a capitalist
mixed economy, in which corporations, other private firms, and individuals make
most microeconomic decisions, and governments prefer to take a smaller role in
the domestic economy, although the combined role of all levels of government is
relatively large, at 36% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The U.S. has a
small social safety net, and regulation of businesses is slightly less than the
average of developed countries. The United States’ median household income in
2005 was $43,318.
Economic activity varies greatly across the country. For example, New
York City is the center of the American financial, publishing, broadcasting, and

Los Angeles is the most important center for film
and television production. TheSan Francisco Bay Area and the Pacific Northwest
are major centers for technology. The Midwest is known for its reliance on
manufacturing and heavy industry, with Detroit serving as the historic center of
the American automotive industry, and Chicago serving as the business and
financial capital of the region. The Southeast is a major area for agriculture,
tourism, and the lumber industry, and, because of wages and costs below the
national average, it continues to attract manufacturing.
The largest sectorin the United States economyis services, which employs
roughly three quarters of the work force.
The economy is fueled by an abundance in natural resources such as coal,
petroleum, and precious metals. However, the country still depends for much of
its energy on foreign countries. In agriculture, the country is a top producer of
corn, soybeans, rice, and wheat, with the Great Plains labeled as the “breadbasket
of the world” for its tremendous agricultural output. The U.S. has a large tourist
industry, ranking third in the world, and is also a major exporter in goods suchas
airplanes, steel, weapons, and electronics. Canada accounts for 19% (more than
any other nation) of the United States’ foreign trade, followed by China, Mexico,
and Japan.
While the per capita income of the United States is among the highest in
the world, the wealth is comparatively concentrated, with approximately 40% of
the population earning less than an average resident of western Europe and the
top 20% earning substantially more. Since 1975, the U.S. has a “two-tier” labor
market in which virtually all the real income gains have gone to the top 20% of
households. This polarization is the result of a relatively high level of economic
freedom.
The social mobility of U.S. residents relative to that of other countries is
the subject of much debate. Some analysts have found that social mobility in the
United States is low relative to other OECD states, specifically compared to
Western Europe, Scandinavia and Canada. Low social mobility may stem in part
from the U.S. educational system. Public education in the United States is funded
mainly by local property taxes supplemented by state revenues. This frequently
results in a wide difference in funding between poor districts or poor states and
more affluent jurisdictions. In addition, the practice of legacy preference at elite
universities gives preference to the children of alumni, who are often wealthy.
This practice reduces available spaces forbetter-qualified lower income students.
Some analysts argue that relative social mobility in the U.S. peaked in the 1960s
and declined rapidly beginning in the 1980s. Former Federal Reserve Board

has also suggested that that the growing income
inequality and low class mobility of the U.S. economy may eventually threaten
the entire system in the near future.
(from Wikipedia – The free Encyclopedia)
Sources
About the USA, Elain Kirn, the Office Of English Language Programs,
Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, The United States Department of
State, Washington DC 20547, 1989
Talking about the USA: an Active Introduction to an Culture, Janet
Giannotti and Suzanne Mele Szwarcewics, Prentice Hall Regents, 1996
Wikipedia – The free Encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States
United States Map
http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-577984-map_of_united_states-i
Suggested reading
Portrait of the USA, published by the United States Information Agency,
1979
http//usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/factover/homepage.htm
CIA – The World Factbook Entry for United States
http//www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/us.htlm
Country profile: United States of America
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/Americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm
UNIT 8: THE AMERICAN PEOPLE & LANGUAGES
8.1. The American people
The United States has the third-largest population in the world (after China
and India). In 1990, the population in the United States passed the 250,000,000
mark. Who are the American people?
The most distinctive characteristic of the United States is its people. As
nineteenth-century poet Walt Whitman said, the United states “is not merely a
nation but a nation of nations.” People from around the world have come to the
United States and influenced its history and culture.
8.1.1. The Native Americans

on the American continent came from Asia. They came
across the Bering Strait from Siberia to Alaska at various times when the sea level
dropped. The first migration might have been as early as 40,000 years ago. Once
in America, these people migrated east across North America and south through
Central and South America. When Columbus arrived in the fifteenth century,
there were perhaps 10 million people in North America alone. They had
developed many different kinds of societies. There were people that Columbus
called “Indians”, in the mistaken belief that he had reached the East Indies.
The story of the westward growth ofthe United States was also the story of
the destruction of the Native Americans, or Indians. Today there are about 1,5
million Indians in the United States. Western states-especially California,
Oklahoma, Arizona and New Mexico-have the largest Indian populations. About
one-third of the Native Americans live on reservations, land that was set aside for
them. Most of the others live in cities. Poverty and unemployment are major
problems, especially on the reservations.
8.1.2. The British
Beginning in the 1600s, the British settled the eastern part of North
America. By the time of the American Revolution (1776), the culture of the
American colonists (their religion, language, government, etc.) was thoroughly
British-with an American “twist.” In a sense, then, the British culture was the
foundation on which America was built. Also, over the years, many immigrants
to the United States have come from the United Kingdom and Ireland.
8.1.3. African-Americans
From 1620 to 1820 byfar the largest group of people to cometo the United
States came, not as willing immigrants, but against their will. These people were
West Africans brought to work as slaves, especially on the plantations, or large
farms, of the South. In all, about 8 million people were brought from Africa.
The Civil War, in the 1860s, ended slavery and established equal rights for
black Americans. But many states, especially in the South, passed laws
segregating (separating) and discriminating against black Americans. The Civil
rights movement, in the 1950s and 1960s, helped get rid of these laws.
However, the effects of 200 years of slavery, 100 years of segregation, and
continued prejudice are not as easy to get rid of. Despite many changes, black
Americans are still much more likely than white Americans to be poor and to

effects that poverty brings. Today about 12 percent of America’s
population is black. Many black Americans live in the South and in the cities of
the Northeast and Midwest.
8.1.4. Immigrants from Northern and Western Europe
Beginning in the 1820s, the number of immigrants coming to the United
States began to increase rapidly. Faced with problems in Europe-poverty, war,
discrimination-immigrants hoped for, and often found, better opportunities in the
United States. Forthe first half-century, mostimmigrants were from northwestern
Europe-from Germany, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Sweden, and Norway. In
the late 1840s, for example, widespread hunger resulting from the failure of the
potato crop led many Irish people to emigrate United States.
During these years, the United States was expanding into what is now the
Midwest. There was a lot of land available for farming. Many new immigrants
became farmers in the Midwest. To this day, German and Scandinavian influence
is obvious in Midwestern foods and festivals.
8.1.5. Immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe
Although immigration from northwestern Europe continued, from the
1870s to the 1930s even more people came from the countries of southern and
eastern Europe-for example, Italy, Greece, Poland, and Russia. Like the earlier
immigrants, they came to escape poverty and discrimination. From 1900 to 1910
alone, almost 9 million people arrived from these and other countries.
During this period, the United States was changing from a mainly
agricultural to a mainly industrial country. The new immigrants helped make this
change possible. Many settled in cities and worked in factories, often under
conditions that were quite bad.
In the 1920s discrimination and prejudice in the United States led to laws
limiting immigration. Immigration showed down until the 1960s when these laws
were changed.
8.1.6. Hispanic-Americans
Hispanics are people of Spanish or Spanish-American origin. Some
Hispanics lived in areas that later became part of the United States (for example,
in what are now the states of California and New Mexico). Many others

United States. Hispanic immigration has increased greatly in
recent decades.
Hispanics come from many different countries. Three especially large
groups are Mexican-Americans (who make up about two-thirds of the total
Hispanic population), Puerto Ricans, and Cuban-Americans. (Puerto Rico was a
U.S. territory and since 1952 has been a self-governing, Commonwealth.) While
the groups have much in common (especially the Spanish language), there are
also many differences. The groups are also concentrated in different areas-
Mexican-Americans in Texas and California, Puerto Ricans in New York, and
Cuban-Americans in Florida. Many recent immigrants are from Central American
countries.
Hispanics are one of the largest growing groups in the United States
population. Within 25 years, they will be the largest minority group.
8.1.7. Asian-Americans
In the nineteenth century, laws limited Asian immigration. Also, Asians in
the United States, such as the Chinese and Japanese who had come to California,
met with widespread discrimination.
Since the mid-1960s, with changes in immigration laws and with conflicts
in Southeast Asia, Asians have been a major immigrant group. In the 1980s, for
example, almost half of all immigrants were Asian. Countries that Asian-
Americans have come from include China and Taiwan, Japan, the Philippines,
Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and India. Many have settled in
California, Hawaii, New York, and Texas.
8.1.8. Melting Pots and Mosaics
For years, it was thought that the United States was and should be a
“melting pot”-in other words, that people from all over the world would comeand
adopt the American culture as their own. More recently, some people have
compared the United States to a mosaic-a picture made of many different pieces.
America’s strength, they argue, lies in its diversity and in the contributions made
by people of many different cultures. America needs to preserve and encourage
this diversity, while making sure that everyone has equal opportunity to succeed.
(from Spotlight on the USA, Randee Falk)

do ‘melting pot’ and ‘mosaic’ refer to?
2. What do you think are some of the advantages and disadvantages of
each?
8.2. Population growth: The great immigration
In 1850 the population of United States was about 23,000,000. In 1930 it
was 123,000,000. What was the average increase per year for that 80-year period?
Much of the great increase in population was due to a great immigration from
abroad, mostly from Europe. Today, many people in the United States have
ancestors who came during that time.
• The chart below shows some of the years in the period of great
immigration, the number of immigrants who arrived in those years, and an
example of the number who arrived from the specific countries.
Year
Total number of immigrants that
year
Country
Number of
immigrants
1851 380.000 Ireland 221,000
1854 428,000 Gernamy 215,000
1870 380.000
Great
Britain
104.000
1873 460.000 China 20,000
1882 789,000 Scandinavia 105.000
1914 1.200.000 Italy 284,000
1921 805,000 Holland 95.000
Ellis Island, immigration station
When many immigrants arrived in the United States from Europe by ship,
most of them passed through an immigration station on Ellis Island in New York.
Ellis Island is around 100 mile south of Manhattan Island in New York
City, near the Statue of Liberty. It was an immigration station from 1892 to 1943.
In that time, 20 million immigrants passed through Ellis Island. That was 90 % of
all immigrants who entered the United States in that period.
The immigrants arrived by ship. On Ellis Island they received medical
examination and interviews aboutwhere they planned to live and work. Then they
bought train tickets there and continued on the new homes.

closed formany years. In 1954, it becamepart of the Statue
of Liberty National Monument . It was renovated opened as an immigration
museum in 1990.
Ellis Island
8.3. Languages in the United States
The United States is (as of 2004) the home ofapproximately 336 languages
(spoken or signed) of which 176 are indigenous to the area.
8.3.1. Official language status
The United States does not have an official language; nevertheless,
American English ( referred to in the US as simply English ) is the language used
for legislation, regulations, executive orders, treaties, federal courtrulings, and all
other official pronouncements. Many individual states have adopted English as
their official language, and several states and territories are officially bilingual:
• Louisiana (English and French),
• New Mexico (English and Spanish),
• Hawaii (Hawaiian English and Hawaiian),
• Puerto Rico (Spanish and English),
• Guam (Chamorro and English),
• American Samoa (Samoan and English);
and one is officially trilingual:
• Northern Mariana Islands (English, Chamorro, and Carolinian).
Until the 1950s, Pennsylvania was officially bilingual in English and
German.
Native American languages are official or co-official on many of the US
Indian reservations and Pueblos.
In 2000, the census bureau printed the standard census questionnaires in six
languages: English, Spanish, Korean, Mandarin (in traditional Chinese
characters), Vietnamese, and Tagalog. The English-Only movement seeks to
establish English as the only official language of the entire nation.
8.3.2. Immigrant languages

long been the destination of many immigrants. From the mid
19th century on, the nation had large numbers of residents who spoke little or no
English, and throughout the country state laws, constitutions, and legislative
proceedings appeared in the languages of politically important immigrant groups.
There have been bilingual schools and local newspapers in such languages as
German, Irish, Italian, Norwegian, Greek, Polish, Swedish, Czech, Japanese,
Yiddish, Welsh, Cantonese, etc. Currently, Asian languages account for the
majority of languages spoken in immigrant communities: Korean, various
Chinese languages, Hindi, Telugu, Vietnamese, and Tagalog.
(from Wikipedia – The Free Encyclopedia)
8.3.3. American English
There are about twice as many speakers of American English as of other
varieties of English, and four times as many as speaker of British English. The
leading position of the US in world affairs is partly responsible for this.
Americanisms have also been spread through advertising, tourism,
telecommunications and the cinema.
As a result, forms of English used in Britain, Australia, etc. have become
less distinct. But there remain many differences in idiom and vocabulary,
especially in British and American English . For most people, however, the most
distinctive feature of American English is its accent.
8.3.4. The development of American English
British people who went to the US in the 17th century spoke a variety of
dialects. After they reached the US their language developed independently of
British English. New words were added for food, plants, animal, etc. not found in
Britain. Many were taken from the Indian languages of Native Americans. The
languages of Dutch and French settlers, and of the huge numbers of immigrants
entering the US in 19th and 20th centuries, also contributed to the development
of American English. Inventions such as electric lighting, the typewriter,
telephone and television added large numbers of words to the language and these,
with the inventions, soon spread to Britain.
8.3.5. Regional differences
General American English (GAE) is the dialect that is closest to being a
standard. It is especially common in the Midwest but it is used in many parts of
the US. The associated Midwestern accent is spoken across most of the northern
states, and by many people elsewhere.

groups are the Northern, the Coastal Southern, the
Midland, from which GAE is derived, and the Western. The main differences
between them are in accent , but some words are restricted to particular dialects
because the item they refer to is not found elsewhere: grits, for example, is eaten
mainly in the south and is considered to be a Southern word.
Northern dialect spread west from New York and Boston. New England
has its own accent. The old, rich families of Boston speak with a distinctive
Bostonian accent which is similar to Britain’s RP.
Midland dialects developed after settlers moved west from Philadelphia.
Both midland and western dialects contain features from the Northern and
Southern groups. There are increasing differences within the Western group, as
South-western dialects have been influenced by Mexican Spanish.
The Southern dialects are most distinctive. They contain old words no
longer used in other American dialects, e.g. kinfolk for ‘relative’ and hand for
‘farm worker’. French, Spanish and native-American languages also contributed
to Southern dialects. Since black slaves were taken mainly to the South and most
African Americans still live there, Black English and Southern dialects have much
in common. The accent is a Southern drawl which even foreigners recognize.
American ‘r’ at the end of a word is often omitted, so that door is pronounced
/dou/, and diphthongs are replaced with simple vowels, so that hide is pronounced
/ha:d/. Some people use y’all as a plural form of ‘you’. This is more common in
speech than in writing.
Southern dialects and accents are often thought by other Americans to be
inferior. Black English and Cajun English may also be less acceptable. Both
varieties are restricted to particular ethnic or social general feelings about those
groups.
8.3.6. American official language?
For a long time English helped to unite immigrants who had come from
many countries. Now, Hispanic immigrants, especially in south-western states,
want to continue to use their own language, and many Americans are afraid that
this will divide the country. The Hispanic population is growing and will reach 80
million by 2050.
This situation led to the founding of the English Only Movement, which
wants to make English the official language of the US. Supporters believe that
this will help keep states and people together, and that money spent on printing
forms, etc. in both English and Spanish would be better spent on teaching the
immigrants English. Others think that American official language is unnecessary.

children of immigrants, and their children, will want to speak
English anyway, and that a common language does not always lead to social
harmony.
(from Oxford Guide to American and British Culture)
• Answer the following questions:
1. What is the major language in the USA?
2. In what ways did American English develop independently of British
English?
3. What is Bostonian accent like?
4. Who are Hispanic immigrants?
5. What is the English Only Movement?
6. Do people in the USA support the movement?
Answer Key
1. English
2. New words was added
3. Britain’s RP
4. people of Spanish or Spanish-American origin
5. the movement wants to make English the official language of the US
6. Some
8.3.7. American English & British English
Written English is more or less the same in both Britain and the USA, and
in everyday speech the two peoples have little difficulty in understanding one
another. In fact, the Americans have exported a large number of their words and
phrases to Britain – through literature, the movies, TV, American soldiers during
bothworld wars, and tourists. The following words and phrases, among countless
others, are of American origin: teenager, boyfriend, radio, commuter, (football)
fan, aisle (way down the middle of a church, train or theater), hold-up (robbery),
right away (at once), slip up (make a mistake), beat up (give some one a beating),
let’s face it (let’s admit), be in the red (in debt to your bank), way of life.
Some of the words that Americans now use come from the languages of
their immigrants, particularly from the Germans, who make up a large proportion
of the country’s population. The basic meaning of “dumb” in both British and
American English, is “unable to speak.”In the USA it acquired a second meaning,

German “dumm” (stupid), and this second meaning has
now crossed the Atlantic to Britain. As the German immigrants learned English,
they sometimes translated literally from their own language. For example,
“ausfullen” became “to fill out” (a form, etc.), and the Americans have adopted
“fill out” instead of the British English “fill in” though some Britons now use “fill
out”.
Of course, there are some American words that are peculiar to the USA and
are quite different from their equivalents in the rest ofthe English-speaking world.
Here is a list of some of the most important.
Am. English Brit. English
elevator lift
faucet tap
bathtub bath
drapes curtains
apartment flat
apartment house block of flats
antenna (radio) aerial
sidewalk pavement
pavement roadway (surface)
truck lorry (also truck)
garbage, trash rubbish
garbage can dustbin
check (restaurant, store etc.) bill
to line up to queue
candy sweets
Inc. (Incorporated) Co. (Company)
rent a car hire a car
living room lounge or
sitting room or
front room or
drawing room
or living room
presently at the moment
Hudson, Ohio River etc. River Thames, Tyne etc.
in the fall in autumn
cookie sweet biscuit
President (in business) Managing Director
subway underground railway

floor
To those who speak, or learn American English, “to wash up” means to
wash one’s hands, but in British English it means to wash the dishes.
The words for the toilet can also cause confusion, although the word toilet
itself is common to both languages.
Am. English Brit. English
comfort station public convenience
restroom ladies/gents
bathroom lavatory
little boy’s room w.c.
little girl’s room loo
the john lav
There are complications, too, with the time, the date and with numbers.
Am. English Brit. English
What time do you have?
What time is it?
What’s the time?
What time do you make it?
a quarter after four (4:15)
a quarter of five (4:45)
Monday through Friday
July fourth, or fourth of July (in speech)
a quarter past four (4:15)
a quarter to five (4:45)
(from) Monday to Friday
July the fourth
April 12, 1981 would appear in a hotel register, on a birth certificate, at the
top of a letter, etc, as:
4/12/81 (month first) in USA 12/4/81 (day first) in UK
Also,
Am. English
one hundred one (in speech)
one billion 1,000,000,000 (109)
Brit. English
one hundred and one
one billion 1,000,000,000,000 (1012)
A
Americans and British use different greetings. In the USA the commonest
greeting is “Hi!”. In Britain it is “Hallo!” or “How are you?” “Hi!” is creeping
into British English too. When they are introduced to someone, the Americans
say, “Glad to know you.” The British say, “How do you do?” or “Pleased to meet
you.” When Americans say “goodbye,” they nearly always add, “Have a good
day,” or “Have a good trip,” etc. to friends and strangers alike. Britons are already
beginning to use “Have a good day.”
The British constantly use “got” in the sense of “have”. The Americans
hardly ever do.

you have a car, room, etc.? Yes, I do.
Brit. English: Have you got a car, room, etc.? Yes, I have.
Pronunciation can often cause misunderstandings:
Am. English Brit. English
apricot (a as in tap)
progress (o as in fog)
simultaneous (i as in ice)
semi (i as in ice)
leisure (ei as in freeze)
clerk (er as in serve)
geyser (ey as in fry)
new (ew as in soon)
tomato (a as in late)
mobile (rhymes with noble)
apricot (a as in tape)
progress (o as in grow)
simultaneous (i as in him)
semi (i as in bit)
leisure (ei as in let)
clerk (er as in dark)
geyser (ey as in freeze)
new (ew as in you)
tomato (a as in part)
mobile (-bile as in mile)
Often it is the stress on one syllable or the other which is different:
Am. English Am. English
debris
momentarily (a as in air)
(meaning in a moment)
advertisement (i as in fry)
aluminum
debris
momentarily (a almost not
heard at all)
(meaning for a moment)
advertisement (i as in bit)
aluminium (note different
spelling)
F
Finally, there are a number of differences between American and British
English in the spelling ofwords, e.g. check(US)/cheque (UK); center (US)/ centre
(UK). Many American English words ending in or, e.g. honor, vigor, labor are
spelt in British English with an our, e.g. honour,vigour, labour. Many verbs in
American English with ize or izing forms, e.g. organize, realizing, are spelt in
British English ise or ising, e.g. organise, realising. In American English,
“practice” is used bothfor the verb and noun. In British English, the verb is spelt
“practise,” and the noun “practice.” In the main, American English avoids the
doubling up of consonants in nouns and verbs while British English does not. In
American English, for example, one writes “travel, traveled, traveling, traveler”,
while in British English, one writes “travel, travelled, travelling, traveller”.
It was once predicted that British and American English would draw so far
apart that eventually they would become separate languages. The opposite has
happened. The links between the two countries are so strong that linguistically,
and probably culturally too, they are closer together than ever.

the USA, Richard Musman)
8.3.8. The end of the melting pot?
If present levels of immigration continue, by the year 2050 America’s
population will increase by 50 per cent to 383 million.
More importantly the racial balance will change. Hispanics will overtake
Blacks (or African Americans, as they are now called) to become the largest
minority at 21 per cent. Asians and Pacific Islanders will increase five times to
more than 12 per cent. This will pushthe total of minorities to over 50 per cent of
the population.
The USA is a country of immigrants, but today’s newcomers are different.
Immigrants in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries became part of the
great American melting pot. They learnt the language and integrated into the
culture of their new home. But today’s immigrants keep their own culture. They
have their own TV channels, daily newspapers and magazines.
The English language has almost disappeared in many places. Parts of
Florida, California and Texas are now Spanish-speaking. The Hispanic
community is a billion dollar market and companies produce adverts in Spanish.
In a huge supermarket in Rockville, Maryland, every customer is from the Far
East. You’ll hear Japanese, Korean and Chinese, but you won’t hear any English.
And this language problem won’t get any better. Immigrant parents are
demanding education for their children in their own language. If this happens, it
will soon be possible to grow up in America and never speak English.
Politicians are asking: How far will this go? What kind of country will it
produce? Senator Robert Byrd, a Democrat from West Virginia recently told the
Senate: ‘When I phone the local garage I can’t understand the person on the other
end of the line and he can’t understand me. These people are all over the place
and they don’t speak English. Do we want more of this?’ Both Democrats and
Republicans are demanding strict immigration controls.
The biggest problems is illegal immigration. African Americans are very
worried about this, becausethe illegal immigrants compete with them for houses,
schools and especially jobs. Work is the key to the problem. While the white
middle classes complain, many of them (including politicians and lawyers)
employ illegal immigrants as cheap nannies, housekeepers, gardeners, chauffeurs
and maids. And if there are jobs, the immigrants will continue to come.
(from Life Lines, Pre-intermediate Student’s book, Tom Hutchinson)
• Answer the following questions.

the article about?
2. Why are today’s immigrants different from earlier immigrants?
3. What are African Americans worried about?
Answer Key
1. immigrants
2. Because they prefer to keep their own country.
3. About the fact that the illegal immigrants competewith them for houses,
schools and especially jobs
Sources
1. Background to the USA, Richard Musman, Macmillan Publishers, 1990
2. Life Lines Student’s bookpre-intermidiate, TomHutchinson, OUP 1997,
pp. 34-35
3. Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, OUP 1999
4. Spotlight on the USA, Randee Falk, OUP, 1993
5. Talking about the USA: an Active Introduction to American Culture,
Janet Giannotti and Suzanne Mele Szaacewics, Prentice Hall Regents, 1996
6. Wikipedia – The free Encyclopedia
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States
Suggested reading
“Melting pot” America
http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/am
ericas/4931534
Portrait of the USA, published by the United States Information Agency,
1979
http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/factover/homepage.htm
UNIT 9: OVERVIEW OF U.S. HISTORY
9.1. Ten Periods of U.S. History
1.
Christopher Columbus discovered North America. European explorers and
settlers came to the new land for gold, adventure, and freedom. The colonists
lived under British laws.
1492
1500’s
1600’s
2.
Americans in the thirteen colonies wanted to be free of British rule. General
George Washington led the colonists in the Revolutionary War. Thomas
1775
1776

Declaration of Independence, and the colonies approved
it.
3.
The American colonists won the war, and the colonies became the United
States of America. The Constitution became the highest law of the land, and
George Washington became the first President.
1783
1787
1789
4.
Millions of Europeans came to America as workers during the Industrial
Revolution. The new nation grew and added more states. It expanded to the
Pacific Ocean.
1840’s
1853
5.
Americans fought against one another in the Civil War between the North and
the South. President Abraham Lincoln freed the slaves in the Emancipation
Proclamation. The northern states won the war, and the period of
Reconstruction (rebuilding) began.
1861
1863
1865
6.
The United States grew to be one of the great powers in the world. The nation
fought in the First World War. After the war women got the right to vote for
the first time.
1917
1920
7.
The Great Depression began with the stock market crash. Banks, factories, and
farms shut down, and many Americans were unemployed. President Franklin
Roosevelt helped end the Depression with the New Deal government.
1929
1933
8.
The United States entered the Second World War when Japan attacked the
Hawaiian Islands. The war ended when the United States dropped the first
atomic bombs, and the world entered the Nuclear Age.
1941
1945
9.
Because of its distrust of and competition with the Soviet Union and other
Communist nations, the United States entered a time of Cold War. Americans
fought in the Korean War. The Civil Rights Movement began, and black and
white Americans fought against segregation (separation of the races).
1950’s
10.
The Space Age began. Americans fought in the Vietnam War. The United States
put the first men on the moon in the Apollo Program. The Women’s Liberation
Movement became strong. Computers began to change the nation faster than
ever before.
1960’s
1970’s
1980’s
9.2. Exploration and Colonization
9.2.1. Exploration
1. In 1492 Christopher Columbus was trying to find a way from Europe to
the Far East. But he didn’t get to China. Instead, he found some islands in the
Atlantic Ocean near North America. He thought he was near the Indies, so he
called the people Indians. The Indians were native Americans. By accident, this
sailor from Spain discovered a new world.
2. Soon other European explorers sailed across the Atlantic to learn about
this exciting discovery. The Spanish explored South America in search of
adventured and gold. Priests came to teach the native people.
3. The British and the French explored North America. Explorers traveled
into the interior and discovered many beautiful forests, valleys and rivers.

established the first permanent settlement in North America.
It was St. Augustine, now in the state of Florida. The British established their first
permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607.
2. Peoplefrom Spain, France, Holland, England, and other countries started
other villages on the east coast of North America. Thirteen settlements became
colonies of England. They were Virginia, Massachusetts, Maryland, Rhode
Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, North and South Carolina, New York, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Georgia.
3. Some of the native people were friendly to the colonists and taught them
about the land. But other Indians attacked them. The settlers killed many Indians
and took their land. They pushed the Indians to the west.
9.3. Revolution
9.3.1. The Cause of the American Revolution
1. The King of England allowed the thirteen American colonies a large
amount of self-government. One ofthe reasons for this freedom was that between
1689 and 1763 England was busy with wars against France. The colonists helped
the Mother Country (England) against the French in the French and Indian War.
2. In 1763 the war ended, and England won control over most of the
colonies of North America. But by this time the colonists felt they were
“Americans.” They often traded with other countries. They felt strong, and they
did not need the Mother Country for protection in wars anymore. They were used
to freedom and self-government.
3. But the English needed the colonies for economic reasons. They were
buying goods from the colonies at low prices and selling back manufactured
products athigh prices. They were also charging his taxes on American trade with
other countries. Then England put new taxes on the colonists, such as the Stamp
Act (taxes on printed materials).
4. Other strict laws made life difficult for the colonists. For example, they
could send their products only on British ships, and they had to sell some goods
only to England at very low prices. British officials could enter homes to search
for illegal goods. The colonists were not free to settle west of the Appalachian
Mountains, and they had to allow British soldiers to live in their homes.
5. The colonists were especially angry about the “taxation without
representation.” They had to pay high taxes but could not send delegates to
England to vote on them. In 1773 England passed the Tea Act (taxes on imported

colonists dressed up like Indians and dumped all the tea from a
British ship into Boston harbor. This act was called the Boston Tea Party.
6. To punish the colonies and control them more closely, England passed
even stricter laws. To show their unity against England, the colonies sent
representatives to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. The Congress
decided to stop buying British goods and demanded rights for the colonists in a
declaration. Americans prepared for war.
(from About the USA, Elain Kirn)
9.3.2. An overview of the Revolution
In the 1700s, or the 18th century, there were 13 British colonies on the East
coast of North America. They were from north to south, New Hampshire,
Massachusetts, RhodeIsland, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The people who lived in the colonies, the colonists, were generally happy
being part of Great Britainfrom the time the colonies were first settled in the 17th
century until the middle of the 18th century. Then, in 1765, Britain decided to
collect taxes from the colonist. They called the tax the “Stamp Act.” It was a tax
onnewspapers and other papers. Thecolonists did not want to pay the tax because
they were not permitted to vote in British elections. They called it “taxation
without representation .” They did not want to pay a tax if they did not have a
voice in the government. The colonists protest the tax, and in 1766, the British
stopped charging it.
After that, Britain tried to charge other taxes, but the colonists protested
until the British removed all of the taxes except a tax on tea. The tax on tea led to
a famous protest in 1773 called the Boston Tea Party. The colonists did not want
to pay tax on British tea which was arriving on ships in Boston harbor They went
on the strike and destroyed all of the tea by throwing it into the harbor.
When Britain tried to punish the Massachusetts colonists for the Boston
Tea Party, colonists from other colonies came together to support them. They
called themselves the continental Congress. They met for the first time in
Philadelphia in 1774. The Continental Congress governed the country throughout
the Revolutionary War.
The Revolutionary war started with the Battle of Lexington and Concord,
in Massachusetts, on April 19, 1775. The Continental Congress chose George
Washington to lead the Continental Army.

the war started, the Continental Congress officially declared
independence from Great Britain. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of
Independence, and the members of the Continental Congress signed it in
Philadelphia on July 4, in 1776.
Revolutionary War battles were fought throughout the colonies and in the
territory to the West of the colonies. The war lasted 6 years. It ended with the
Battle of Yorktown, in Virginia, in 1781.
From 1781 to 1789, the country was governed under the Articles of
Confederation. The Articles of Confederation set up a weak federal government.
In 1789, the constitution of the United States went into effect. That gave
the country a strong federal government. In that year, George Washington was
elected as the first president.
(from Talking about the USA, Janet Giannotti and Suzanne Mele
Szwarcewics)
George Washington
9.4. The Civil War
9.4.1. Causes of the war
The American Civil War was fought between the northern and southern
states from 1861 to 1865. There were two main causes of the war. The first was
the issue of slavery: should Africans who had been brought by force to the US be
used as slaves. The second was the issue of states’ rights: should the US federal
government be more powerful than the governments of individual states.
The North and South were very different in character. The economy of the
South was based on agriculture, especially cotton. Picking cotton was hard work,
and the South depended on slaves for this. The North was more industrial, with a
larger population and greater wealth. Slavery, and opposition to it, had existed
since before independence (1776) but, in the 19th century, the abolitionists,
people who wanted to make slavery illegal, gradually increased in number. The
South’s attitude was that each state had the right to make any law it wanted, and
if southern states wanted slavery, the US government could not prevent it. Many
southerners became secessionists, believing that southern states should secede
from the Union (= become independent from the US).
In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected President. He and his party, the
Republicans, were against slavery, but said that they would not end it. The
southern states did not believe this, and began to leave the Union. In 1860 there
were 34 states in the US. Eleven of them (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida,

Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North
Carolina) left the Union and formed the Confederate States of America, often
called the Confederacy. Jefferson Davis became its President, and for mostof the
war Richmond, Virginia, was the capital.
9.4.2. Four years of fighting
The US government did not want a war but, on 12 April 1861, the
Confederate Army attacked Fort Sumter, which was in the Confederate state of
South Carolina but still occupied by the Union army. President Lincoln could not
ignore the attack and so the Civil War began.
Over the next four years the Union army tried to take control of the South.
The battles that followed, Shiloh, Antietam, Bull Run and Chicamauga, have
become part of America’s national memory. After the battle of Gettysburg in
1863, in a speech known as the Gettysburg Address, President Lincoln said that
the North was fighting the war to keep the Union together so that ‘…government
of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth’. In the
same year he issued the Emancipation Proclamation which made slavery illegal,
but only in the Confederacy.
Slaves and former slaves played an important part in the war. Some gave
information to Union soldiers, because they knew that their best chance of
freedom was for the North to win the war. Many former slaves wanted to become
Union soldiers, but this was not very popular among white northerners. In spite
of this opposition about 185000 former slaves served in the Union army.
Women on both sides worked as spies, taking information, and sometimes
even people, across borders by hiding them under their large skirts.
In the South especially, people suffered greatly and had little to eat. On 9
April 1865, when the South could fight no more, General Robert E Lee
surrendered to General Ulysses S Grant at Appomattox Court House in Virginia.
A total of 620000 people had been killed and many more wounded.
The war was over but feelings of hostility against the North remained
strong. John Wilkes Booth, an actor who supported the South, decided to kill
President Lincoln. On 14 April 1865 he approached the President in Ford’s
Theatre in Washington and shot him. Lincoln died the next morning.
The killing of President Lincoln showed how bitter many people felt. The
Southhad been beaten, butits peoplehad notchanged their opinions aboutslavery
or about states’ rights. During the war, the differences between North and South

greater. The North had become richer. In the South, cities had
been destroyed and the economy ruined.
Abraham Lincohn
9.4.3. Reconstruction
After the war the South became part of the United States again. This long,
difficult period was called Reconstruction. The issues that had caused the war,
slavery and states’ rights, still had to be dealt with. The issue of slavery was
difficult, because many people even in the North had prejudices against Blacks.
The new state governments in the South wanted to make laws limiting the rights
of Blacks, and the US government tried to stop them. Between 1865 and 1870 the
13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution were passed, giving Blacks
freedom, making them citizens of the US and the state where they lived, and
giving them, in theory, the same rights as white Americans.
Many northern politicians went to the South where they thought they could
get power easily. These northerners were called carpet-baggers. Both carpet-
baggers and southern politicians were dishonest and stole money from the new
governments, which hurt the South even more.
In 1870 the last three southern states were admitted to the Union again, and
in 1877 the northern army finally left the South. The war lasted four years, but
efforts to reunite the country took three times as long.
9.4.4. Effects of the Civil War
Differences between North and South are still strong. In the South the
Confederate flag is still often used, and the state flags of Georgia and Mississippi
were made to look similar to it. The state motto is Audemus jura nostra defendere,
which is Latin for ‘We dare to defend our rights’. The Civil War helped to end
slavery, but long afterwards Blacks were still being treated badly, and race
relations continue to be a problem. The South was so angry with the Republicans,
the party of Lincoln and Reconstruction, that southerners voted Democratic for a
century. The war showed strong differences between parts of the US, but many
people believe that the mostimportant thing it did was to prove that the US is one
country.
(from Oxford Guide to British and American Culture)
Events of the civil war
• Fill in the chart with missing information
DATE FACTS

elected President
– 11 states left the Union
1861 – the Civil War began
1863
– the Gettysburg Address
– issued the Emancipation Proclamation
1865
– The war was over
– Lincoln died
• Questions for discussion:
1. What are the main causes of the war?
2. Why did the slaves play an important part in the war?
3. What did the slaves gain from the war?
4. What are the effects of the war?
Answer Key
1. The issue of slavery and the issue of states’ rights
2. Because some gave information to Union soldiers
3. freedom
4. Differences between North and South are still strong
Sources
About the USA, Elain Kirn, the Office Of English Language Programs,
Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, The United States Department of
State, Washington DC 20547, 1989
Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, OUP 1999
Talking about the USA: an Active Introduction to American Culture, Janet
Giannotti and Suzanne Mele Szwarcewics, Prentice Hall Regents, 1996
Background to the USA, Richard Musman, Macmillan Publishers, 1990
Suggested reading
Toward the city on a Hill, Portrait of the USA, published by the United
States Information Agency, 1979
http//usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/factover/homepage.htm
Words of Lincoln console nation
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2250665.stm
Timeline: United States of America
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1230058.stm

Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, Jonathan
Crowther, OUP 1999
The Constitution, Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, Jonathan
Crowther, OUP 1999
The History of the US, Oxford Guide to British and American Culture,
Jonathan Crowther, OUP 1999
USA
http//www.theusaonline.com
Wikipedia – The free Encyclopedia
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States
UNIT 10: THE U.S. CONSTITUTION
10.1. The U.S. Constitution
10.1.1. Introduction to the U.S. Constitution
After the Revolutionary War, the Articles ofConfederation (1781) were the
basis of the new American government. But this weak government did not work
very well. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 revised the
Articles of Confederation. The result was the U.S. Constitution.
Three main principles form the basis of the Constitution:
1. the separation of powers of the three branches of government
2. government of, for, and by the people
3. basic human rights (individual freedom, equality, and justice)
The Constitution has three parts:
1. ThePreamble tells its purposes:to protectthenation and to assure justice,
peace, and liberty for all.
2. The Document contains seven articles.
3. Twenty-six Amendments guarantee individual rights and freedoms and
establish other basic principles of government.
10.1.2. The Document

the Legislative Branch of government. It established
these principles, among others:
1. Congress makes the laws of the nation.
2. The two houses of Congress are the Senate and the House of
Representatives.
3. The people of each state elect two Senators.
4. The population of each state determines the number of Representatives.
Article Two established the Executive Branch of government, the
Presidency. Here are a few of its principles:
1. The Electoral College elects the President.
2. The President is the chief executive of the nation and Commander in
Chief of the armed forces.
3. The president has certain powers, such as to enforce laws.
4. The president may initiate the law-making process.
Article Three created the judicial Branch under these principles:
1. The Supreme Court is the highest court of the land. It is a court of last
appeal, and its decisions are final.
2. It is the responsibility of the Supreme Court to defend and interpret the
principles of the Constitution.
3. Residents of the U.S. have the right to trial by jury.
Article Four defined the relationship among the states and the relationship
of the states to the Federal government. It included these principles:
1. U.S. residents have the same rights in all states.
2. All states have a republican form of government.
3. Congress may admit new states and make laws for U.S. territories.
B>Article Five described ways to amend (change) the Constitution.
1. Congress may propose (suggest) an amendment if two-thirds of both
houses vote for it.
2. The states may initiate an amendment. If two-thirds of all state
legislatures agree to propose it, Congress will call a national convention.
3. To add the amendment to the Constitution, three-fourths of the state
legislatures or special state conventions must ratify (officially approve) it.

the Constitution the Supreme Law of the Land.
1. No state constitution or law or judge may contradict (state the opposite
of) the Constitution.
2. All public officials must promise to supporttheConstitution in an official
oath.
Article Seven declared that nine states must ratify the Constitution for it to
become law.
10.1.3. The Amendments
The U.S. Constitution is “a living document” because Americans can
change it with amendments. The existing amendments protectindividual rights or
have solved other national problems.
AmendmentRatified What does the amendment say?
1-10 1791 The first ten amendments are the “Bill of Rights.”
11 1798
Citizens of a state or foreign country may not take
another state to court.
12 1804
Electors vote for the President and Vice President on
separate ballots.
13 1865 Slavery is illegal.
14 1868
All people in the United States or naturalized are
citizens.
15 1870 Black men have the right to vote.
16 1913 Congress has the right to tax income.
17 1913 The citizens elect U.S. Senators directly.
18 1919 It is illegal to make or sell liquor.
19 1920 Women citizens have the right to vote.
20 1933 A new president takes office on January 20.
21 1933 The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed.
22 1951 Presidents may serve no more than two terms.
23 1961
Citizens living in Washington D.C. may vote in
Presidential elections.
24 1964 It is illegal to require voting taxes.
25 1967
The Vice President becomes President if the President
can’t carry out his duties.
26 1971 All citizens eighteen years and oldermay vote.
10.2. The Federal Government
10.2.1. The American System of Government

is a democratic republic (a representative democracy).
The national government is a government of all the people and their
representatives (elected officials). It is called the federal government because the
nation is a federation, or association, of states.
The U.S. Constitution gave the federal government only limited powers,
the powers stated in the Constitution. All other powers belong to the individual
states.
The Founding Fathers established three branches of government: the
legislative, the executive, and the judicial. Each branchhas different functions and
power under the principle of separation of powers. There is also a system of
checks and balances so that each branch has some control over the other two
branches. This way, no one group can have too much power.
10.2.2. The Three Branches of Government
The legislative branch is called Congress. It consists of the Senate and the
House of Representatives. It is the responsibility of Congress to proposeand pass
laws. In the system of checks and balances, Congress can refuse to approve
Presidential appointments and can override a Presidential veto.
The executive branch consists of the President, the Vice President, the
Cabinet and the thirteen Departments, and the independent agencies. It’s the
responsibility of the executive to enforce laws. The President has the power to
veto (reject) any bill (law) of Congress. He appoints all Supreme Court Justice.
The judicial branch consists ofthe Supreme (highest) Court, eleven Circuit
Courts of Appeals, and ninety-four District Courts. This branch explains and
interprets laws makes decisions in lawsuits. It has power over the other two
branches because it can declare their laws and actions unconstitutional (against
the principles of the Constitution).
a. The Legislative Branch
Facts About Congress
the Senate
the House of
Representatives
Number of Members 100 435

Per
State
2
determined by state
population
Length of Term 6 years(1) 2 years(1)
Number of Terms no limit no limit
Age Requirement at least 30 at least 25
Citizenship Requirement
at least 9 years as a U.S.
citizen
at least 7 years as a U.S.
citizen
Dates of Regular Session January 3 to adjournment January 3 to adjournment
(1) One-third of all Senators and all Representatives run for office every two
years.
HOW CONGRESS MAKES LAW
1 A bill concerning taxes or the budget must begin in the House of
Representatives.
2 If a committee tables a bill, Senator or Representatives can forceit out of
committee with a majority vote.
3 This step often “kills” the bill.
4 If the second house of Congress amends the bill, the first house must
agree to the changes.

President does nothing and Congress adjourns within ten days, the
bill does not become law.
b. The Executive Branch
The Electoral College
U.S. citizens do not vote on federal laws because the U.S. system of
government is a representative democracy, but they do choose the President and
Vice President of the United States. However, the system of electing these
officials is an indirect one.
When voters choosecandidates onelection day, they are actually voting for
presidential “electors.” The numbers of electors in each state is equal to the
number ofsenators and representatives from that state in Congress. Becausestates
with large populations have more representatives than states with fewer people,
they have more power in an election. The Electoral College is based ona “winner-
take-all” system. The winner of the majority of votes in each state gets all of that
state’s electoral votes. For example, the candidate with over fifty percent of the
popular (total) vote in California gets all of that state’s electoral votes, even if he
or she won with only a small majority.
Because of the Electoral College system, occasionally the candidate with
the majority of the popular vote loses the presidential election. This is unusual,
however.
In December the electors meet in their state capitals to cast their votes and
send tem to the U.S. Senate. On January 6 the members of Congress meet to count
the votes.
The Cabinet, the Departments, and the Agencies
It is the responsibility of the executive branch of the federal government to
enforce the U.S. Constitution and federal laws. The President is the Chief
Executive and head of the government. The Vice President, the fourteen Cabinet
members (usually called Secretaries) and their Departments, and the federal
agencies are also part of the executive branch.
The President chooses the members of his Cabinet (the heads of the
departments), and the Senate approves his choices. The fourteen departments are
the Departments of:
State
the Treasury
Defense
Justice
the Interior
Agriculture
Commerce
Labor
Health and
Human Services
Housing and Urban
Development
Transportation
Education
Energy
Veterans Affairs

provide special services and may be temporary.
Some well-known agencies are the Civil Rights Commission, the Environmental
Protection Agency, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, the United States PostalService, and the
Veterans Administration (VA).
c. The Judicial Branch
Look at pairs of questions and answers below and learn about the Judicial
Branch of the U.S. gorvernment.
1. What is the highest court of the land?
The Supreme Court
2. The Supreme Court is the “Last Courtof Appeal.” What does this mean?
No other court has higher decision-making power.
3. What does the Supreme Court do?
It approves or overturns decisions of lower courts and explains and
interprets laws.
4. In the system of checks and balances, how does the judicial branch have
power over the other two branches of government?
The Supreme Court can decide on the constitutionality of laws and
Presidential actions.
5. Where is the Supreme Court?
In Washington, D.C. (the nation’s capital)
6. Who choose the justices of the Supreme Court?
The President appoints them, but the Senate must approve them.
7. Who chooses the Chief Justice (head judge) of the Supreme Court?
The nine justices of the Supreme Court elect him or her.
8. Has there ever been a woman Supreme Court justice?
Yes. Sandra Day O’Connor became the first woman justice in 1981.
9. How long do Supreme Court justices serve?
For life
10. Must the Supreme Court hear all appeals from lower courts?

only the more important cases (especially cases concerning
individual rights and the constitutionality of laws or actions).
11. Can the President or Congress abolish the Supreme Court?
No. Only a Constitutional Amendment could abolish it.
12. What other kinds of courts and how many of them are there in the
federal system?
Eleven Circuit Courts of Appeal and ninety-four District Courts
13. Are there any special federal courts?
Yes. There are a Court of Claims, a Court of Customs, a Court of
Customs and Patent Appeals, and a Court of Military Appeals.
14. What do the Circuit Courts of Appeals do?
They overturn decisions of the Supreme Court.
15. What are the District Courts and what happens in them?
They are the lowest level of federal courts. Federal cases begin there.
16. How do federal courts differ from other courts?
Federal courts take only cases concerning federal law. Other courts hear
cases about state or local law.
10.2.3. Political Parties
The U.S. Constitution does not talk about political parties, but they began
during George Washington’s term office. On one side were the Federalists. They
wanted a strong federal government. On the other side, the democratic-
Republicans wanted to limit the power of the national government. Their leader
was Thomas Jefferson, and their group later became the Democratic Party.
Some of the early political parties, such as the Federalists and the Whigs,
no longer exist. Since 1854, the two major parties have been the Democrats and
the Republicans. Smaller parties have lasted for only a short time. “Third parties”
have won in local elections, but their candidates have never won a Presidential
election.
Many people say that there is not much difference between the Republican
and Democratic Parties. “Liberal” politicians usually favor reform (change) and
progress. “Conservative” politicians usually opposechange. But both liberal and
conservative members belong to the two major political parties, and their ideas
often change with the times and the issues.

parties
a. The Democratic Party
The Democratic Party is the oldest party in the United States. In 1829,
Andrew Jacksonbecamethe first Democratic President. Since that time, the issues
of the nation and the ideas of the party have changed. Both the major parties have
liberal and conservative members, but in general people consider the Democrats
today more liberal than the Republicans. Democrats often want the government
to establish social programs for people need, such as the poor, the unemployed,
and the elderly. They usually say they believe in equal rights for women and
minorities and they opposenuclear weapons and too much military spending. The
symbol of the Democratic Party (from political cartoons) is the donkey.
b. The Republican Party
The Republican Party, sometimes called the G.O.P. (the Grand Old
Party) began in 1854 over the issues of slavery. Republicans opposeslavery. The
first Republican candidate to become President was Abraham Lincoln. After the
Civil War, Republicans got interested in farm, land, and business issues. In
general, Republicans vote more conservatively than Democrats. They want
government to support big business but not to control the lives of citizens. They
often oppose government spending for social programs but support military
spending. The party symbol is the elephant.
10.2.4. Facts about the Federal government
1. The federal government is in the form of a democratic republic, which
means that the people elect representatives.
2. It is a representative democracy because the people have the power
through their elected representatives.
3. The government follows the principles of a constitution with its bill of
rights.
4. The government has three branches with different responsibilities and
powers.
5. The legislative branch has two houses that make laws.
6. The upper house in the Senate, and the lower house in the House of
Representatives.
7. The leaders of the executive branch are the U.S. President and Vice
President.

appoints the members of the Cabinet. These advisors
(“Secretaries”) are the heads of federal departments.
9. The judicial branch of the federal government judges cases of federal
law.
10. The highest court is the U.S. Supreme Court. There are also circuit
courts of appeals and district courts.
10.3. State Government
10.3.1. Facts about the state government
1. State government is in the form of a democratic republic, which means
that the people elect representatives.
2. In addition to power through their elected state representatives, the
people have direct power through the initiative, referendum, and recall processes.
3. The government follows the principles of a constitution with its bill of
rights.
4. The government has three branches with different responsibilities and
powers.
5. The legislative branch has two houses that make laws. *
6. The upper house in a senate, and the lower house is a state assembly or
a house of representatives.
7. The leaders of the executive branch are the governor and the lieutenant
governor.
8. The executive branch includes advisors to the governor. Some advisors
are elected and some are appointed.
9. The judicial branch of state government judges cases of state law.
10. Thehighest courtis the state supreme court. Theremay also beappellate
(appeals), county, superior, district, circuit, municipal, and special courts.
_________________________________________________
* Only Nebraska has a one-house state legislature.
10.3.2. Functions, Powers, and Services
Only the federal government:
• declares war
Only a state government:
• maintains a police force

armed forces
• coins money
• establishes and maintains post
offices
• gives authors and inventors the
exclusive right to their work
(copyrights or patents)
• makes treaties with the
governments of other countries
• supports a state militia, such as the
National Guard
• regulates transportation and trade
within the state
• establishes and maintains schools
• oversees local governments and
grants city charters
Both the federal and state governments:
• fund public projects (buildings, dams, highways, etc.)
• support farming and business
• maintain court systems
• regulate banks
The federal government usually provides funding and the states
distribute the money and provide programs for:
• public assistance for people in need
• health care
• protection of natural resources
• improvements in living and working conditions
“The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor
prohibited by it to the states are reserved to the states respectively, or to the
people.” The Tenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States.”
10.3.3. The Separation of Powers in State Government
State governments are similar in structure to each other and to the federal
government. Under the principle of separation of powers, the government of each
state has three branches-the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. In the
system of checks and balances, each branch has some control over the other two
branches.

veto bills from the legislature (the senate an the house
or assembly). In some states, the governor uses a “line-item veto.” This way, he
orshe does not have to reject an entire law in orderto veto parts of it. The governor
also appoints judges in the judicial branch. With enough votes in bothhouses, the
legislature can override the governor’s veto.
Like the federal courts, state courts also explain and interpret laws. They
can declare state laws unconstitutional (contradictory to the state constitution).
State government includes a system of direct democracy. Through the
initiative process, citizens may put proposed laws on the ballot for the people to
vote on. They may decide on proposed constitutional amendments or important
state issues in a referendum. Through a recall, they can sometimes remove an
elected government official from office.
The federal government also has power over state governments. For
example, a state constitution or court may not contradict the U.S. Constitution,
and the U.S. Supreme Court may overrule the decision of a state supreme court.
Also, the U.S. President may withhold money from a state if the state refuses to
obey federal laws.
Source
About the USA, Elain Kirn, the Office Of English Language Programs,
Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, The United States Department of
State, Washington DC 20547, 1989
Suggested reading
A Responsive Government, Portrait of the USA, published by the United
States Information Agency, 1979
http//usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/factover/homepage.htm
Background to the USA, Richard Musman, Macmillan Publishers, 1990
Official Website of the United States government – Gateway to
governmental sites
http//www.firstgov.gov
The Bill of Rights, The Constitution, Election in the US, Oxford Guide to
British and American Culture, OUP 1999
USA
http//www.theusaonline.com
Wikipedia – The free Encyclopedia

U.S. EDUCATION
11.1. The government and education
Although in general Americans prefer to limit the influence ofgovernment,
this is notso where education is concerned. All levels of government are involved
in education and it is considered to be one oftheir most important responsibilities.
The federal government provides some money for education through the
Department ofEducation. But state and local governments have direct controland
are responsible for the education of students between the ages of 5 and 18, or the
years ofschoolcalled kindergarten, first grade, second grade, etc. to twelfth grade.
These years are together referred to as K–12. Individual states have their own
Boards of Education, which decide the curriculum and what students must have
achieved before they can graduate from high schoolat the age of 18. States are
also concerned with certification standards, general standards of education
including the qualifications needed by teachers.
Most of the money for education comes from taxes that people pay to their
local government. Local governments appoint schoolboards, which have control
over how individual schools are run. A school board hires a superintendent, the
person in charge of all the schools in a schooldistrict, principals for each school,
and teachers. It also decides how the rest of the money available should be spent.
Schoolboards are usually made up of people who live in the area, often parents
of children in the schools.
At the primary and secondary levels, most school districts have a Parent-
Teacher Association(PTA) which gives all parents a chance to take part in making
decisions abouthow the schoolis run. Parents regularly visit schools to meet their
children’s teachers and discuss their progress. Many volunteer in their children’s
schools to teach the children a skill, take them on trips, or work in the school
library.
11.2. The school system
Although many Americans attend nursery school, day care or pre-school
from an early age, formal education is usually considered to begin at the age of 5
when children go to kindergarten, the first step in the K–12 education.
Kindergarten and the next five or six years of education, first grade, second grade,
etc., are together usually called elementary school(the term primary schoolis less
common in the US than in Britain). Grades seven to twelve are part of secondary
school, and may be divided in different ways. In some places grades seven and

junior high school. Other school systems have middle school,
which lasts for three years. High schoolusually covers four years, from the ninth
to the twelfth grades.
Post-secondary education, after twelfth grade, is not free though state
governments which run most of the educational institutions subsidize the costfor
people who live in the state.
11.2.1. The quality of education
By some standards, American education seems very successful. Although
young people must attend schooluntil they are 16, over 80% continue until they
are 18. About 45% of Americans have some post-secondaryor further education,
and over 20% graduate from a college or university.
However, 20% of adults, about 40 million people, have very limited skills
in reading and writing, and 4%, about 8 million, are illiterate (= cannot read or
write). Since control over education is mostly at local level, its quality varies
greatly from place to place. There are many reasons forthis butthe mostimportant
is money. In general, the people who live in city centres tend to be very poor.
Those with more money prefer to live in the suburbs. People in the suburbs pay
higher taxes, and so the schools there have more money to spend. Crime and
violence are also serious problems in the inner cities, with some students taking
weapons to school. In such a situation it is hard to create a good atmosphere for
learning.
11.2.2. Public or private education
Most educational institutions in the US are public (= run by the
government) but there are someprivate schools which students pay a lot ofmoney
to attend. Many private schools have a high reputation and parents send their
children there so that they will have advantages later in life. Oppositionto private
schools is not as strong as it is in Britain: individual choice is important in the US,
and so the right of people to buy a different education for their children is not
questioned. Public orprivate education is much less of an issue than the difference
in quality between inner city and suburbanschools. Mostparents who have money
are likely to spend it notbysending their children to private schools butbymoving
to a suburb where the public schools are good.
11.2.3. Points of conflict
Americans agree on the importance of education being available to all, but
there is disagreement about what should be taught. The greatest area of conflict is
the place of religious or moral education. Commonly debated topics include

be allowed to say prayers, whether students should learn
about sex, and whether it is right to hit students as a punishment. Sometimes the
debate ends up in court, and courts usually say that no student should be forced to
do something that is against his or her beliefs.
Education for people who come to the US from other countries is also much
discussed. In states like California where there are many people whose first
language is not English, there is debate over what language should be used in
schools. Some people believe that children have the right to an education in their
own language; others say that people who come to the US have a responsibility
to learn English and cannot expect special treatment. At university level some
people object to the high numbers of foreign students, especially in science and
related fields. But since relatively few Americans study these subjects the
universities are glad to take international students.
In spite of occasionalconflict, mostAmericans agree that a good education
gives people the best chance of getting a good job and of improving their social
position.
11.2.4. Life in elementary school
The schoolyear runs from early September to the following June. Students
attend daily from Monday to Friday. The schoolday in elementary schoolusually
lasts from about 8.30 a.m. to 3.30 p.m., though kindergarten children usually
attend for only half the day.
Students spend most of the day with their class. The class is taught most of
the time by the same teacher. A few times each week they will have a gym class
or do music or art with another teacher. Students rarely have homework until they
reach the final grades of elementary school, and even then there is very little.
The schoolday is divided into various sections and in the morning and the
afternoon students have recess, a time when they can go outside and play, for
about 15 minutes. Schools usually have a playground attached, a large area
outside with equipment for playing different games. In the middle of the day
students eat lunch, either a meal prepared by their parents or a hot meal which
they buy from the school. The rest of the lunch period is free and spent playing.
The traditional subjects for elementary schoolstudents are called the three
Rs:reading, writing, and arithmetic. In addition, the students study other subjects,
suchas history and geography, and are given a chance to do creative activities and
sports. It is thought to be important to give children the chance to study as many
subjects as possible, so that whatever their natural skills are they will have the
chance to develop them.

relaxed about the kind of behaviour they expect from
students at elementary school. Children should be fairly quiet during lessons but
they are not punished unless their behaviour is out of controland could hurt other
students. Punishments include making the student stay behind for a few minutes
when others have left for the day, or sending him or her to the principal’s office.
Teachers in elementary school are usually called by their title and surname, e.g.
Mr Johnson.
Students at public schools do not usually have a school uniform. Students
who attend private and parochial (= religious) schools do wear uniform.
11.2.5. Junior high school and high school
Students at junior high schooltake different lessons from different teachers
who are specialists in their subjects. Students are required to study certain
subjects, but they can choosewhich classes they take. For example, students may
be required to study a science for three years, but they can choosewhether to take
chemistry, physics or biology. There are also many subjects that students can
choose to do or to drop, without any limits at all.
At high school, students may take technical subjects such as computer
programming alongside academic subjects. As in elementary schoolthe aim is to
help children develop their natural potential. Additional summer sessions enable
students to catch up with work they have missed or to take a course they did not
have time for during the year. When students graduate from high school they
receive a diploma, a document to say that they have finished their courses.
An important part of junior high school and high school is, for many
students, the increasing amount ofindependence and responsibility they are given.
Students in high school have special names: ninth-grade students are called
freshmen; tenth-graders are sophomores; students in the eleventh grade are
juniors, and those in the twelfth grade are seniors. As students go through these
levels, they expect to have more and more freedom.
Part of the independence of secondary education comes from being away
from home for longer, and having to travel further to school. Many students go to
schoolin a schoolbus which picks them up near their homes and takes them back
again in the evening. ‘Busing’ students for long distances became necessary in
some cities in order to keep a mix of white and black students in each school. At
the age of 16, when most Americans learn to drive, students often go to schoolin
their own car or borrow that of their parents.
After school, students can choose from many extra-curricular activities.
These include joining clubs based on a particular interest, e.g. chess, computers,

working on the schoolnewspaper or playing in a sports team.
A teacher from the schoolspends time with each group, but as students get older
they are expected to organize and run things themselves.
During the schoolyear there are important social activities. In the autumn
homecoming, the day when former students return to the school, is celebrated with
a big football game and a dance. Other dances are held during the year. The most
important of these is the Prom which is held near the end of the school year.
Students take special care to find the right clothes for this event, which is usually
limited to juniors and seniors. Younger students are very pleased if they have the
chance to go as the guest of an older student.
11.3. Going to college
Americans talk about ‘going to college’ even if the institution they attend
is a university. To Americans the phrase ‘going to university’ sounds pretentious.
Most colleges offer classes only for undergraduate students studying for a
bachelor’s degree. Community colleges offer two-year courses leading to an
associate’s degree, and afterwards students transfer to a different college or
university to continue their studies. Universities are larger than colleges and also
offer courses for graduate students who study in graduate school. Many
universities also have separate professionalschools, e.g. a medical schoolora law
school.
American high schoolstudents who want to study at a college oruniversity
have to take a standardized test, e.g. the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) or the
ACT (American College Test). Students from countries outside the US who are
not native speakers of English must also take the TOEFL (Test of English as a
Foreign Language). Each college or university decides on the minimum score it
will accept, though test scores are never the only factor taken into account.
Students apply direct to between three and six colleges in their last year of high
school. Each college has its own application form and mostinclude a question for
which the student must write an essay. The student also has to send a transcript (=
an official list of all the subjects studied and the grades received) and letters of
reference.
There are many private colleges and universities but most students choose
a public institution becausethe costs arelower. All universities charge tuition, and
students pay extra for room and board. Prices range from a few hundred dollars a
year to well over $25 000 at some private colleges. Students whose families
cannot afford to pay the full amount apply for financial aid. Many students receive
a financial aid package which may be a combination of grants from the

a student loan and work-study (= a part-time job at the
college).
The most famous universities are those in the Ivy League, including
Harvard and Yale, but many others have good reputations. Large universities
often put most emphasis on research. Smaller colleges tend to concentrate on
teaching undergraduates, and many students prefer these colleges because they
offer smaller classes and more personal attention from teachers.
Teaching and learning
The US academic year may be divided into two semesters of about 15
weeks or three quarters of about 10 weeks each. Students take courses in a variety
of subjects, regardless of their main subject, because the aim of the liberal arts
curriculum is to producewell-rounded people with good critical skills. At the end
of their sophomore(= second)year students choose a major (= main subject) and
sometimes a minor (= additional subject) which they studyfor the next two years.
Students take four or five courses each semester from the coursecatalog. Courses
may consist mainly oflectures ormay include discussionsections or lab sessions.
Students are given grades at the end of each course. The highest grade is A;
the lowest is F, which means that the student has failed the courseand will not get
credit fortaking it. To checka student’s overall progress, the university calculates
a grade point average (GPA). Students who finish their degree with a high GPA
may be awarded Latin honours, of which the highest is summa cum laude.
Most people who teach at colleges or universities and have a doctorateare
addressed as professor. Fullprofessors aresenior to associateprofessors, assistant
professors and instructors. Graduate students working towards a higher degree
may teach undergraduate courses at larger universities. These grad students are
called TAs (teaching assistants). In return, TAs do not have to pay for their own
tuition and get a small amount of money to live on.
(from Oxford Guide to British and American Culture)
Sources
Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, OUP 1999
Wikipedia – The free Encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States

Educational System, Portrait of the USA, published by the
United States Information Agency, 1979
http//usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/factover/homepage.htm
UNIT 12: THE U.S. SPORTS AND ENTERTAINMENT
12.1. Baseball
Baseball is America’s national sport, played mainly by men. It developed
in the mid 19th century from the British games of rounders and cricket. Baseball
is also popular in Japan and several Latin American countries, and has been an
Olympic sport since 1992. Softball is similar but uses a larger, softer ball and is
popular with women.
Many Americans play baseball for fun because players do not have to be
strong like football players or tall like basketball players. Some people think
baseball is too slow, but the team managers often change their players and plans
during the game, and there are many exciting plays. Many American families
enjoy going to a Sunday afternoon double-header (= two games between the same
two teams in one day).
12.1.1. The game
Baseball is played with long wooden bats and a small, hard ball, by two
teams of nine players each. The infield has three bases (= bags filled with sand)
and a home plate, also called home, arranged in a diamond. The distance between
each base is 90 feet (27.4 metres). The pitcher, who throws the ball to the batter
at the home plate, stands in the centre of the diamond. The distance from the
pitcher’s mound to the home plate is 60.5 feet (18.4 metres). The team that scores
the most runs as its players move round the bases is the winner.
Each game lasts nine innings. In each inning the visiting team is first to bat
(= hit the ball), while the home team plays defense. Players bat in turn but when
a team has three outs, it must let the other side bat. If a batter hits the ball and it is
not caught in the air for an out, he runs to first base. If the ball is thrown to first
basebeforethe batter gets there, he is out. If not, he then tries to advance to second
base, third baseand back to home for a run while other players bat. A base runner
is out if another player in his team hits the ball and it is thrown to second or third
basebefore he gets there. The mostexciting play is when the batter hits a ball very
far and can go round all the bases for a home run, also called a homer.
An umpire judges the throws. If a pitch (= ball that is thrown) is not hit, the
ball is caught by the catcher behind the batter and returned to the pitcher. A batter

is out) if the pitcher throws three balls within the strike zone (= the
area between the batter’s shoulders and knees) and he misses them or does nottry
to hit them. A batter can go to first base on a walk if the pitcher throws four balls
outside the strike zone. As well as the pitcher and the catcher, the defense has four
other players in the infield and three in the outfield.
12.1.2. Competitions
The professional seasonlasts from April to October. Major league baseball
is organized into the American League and the National League. At the end ofthe
seasonthe four bestteams in eachleague play to decidewhich two will go forward
to the World Series. The team that wins four games in this competition are the
World Champions. The New York Yankees have won the World Series the most
times. Other well-known teams include the Boston Red Sox, the Cleveland
Indians, the Detroit Tigers, the Chicago Cubs, the St Louis Cardinals and the Los
Angeles Dodgers. There are also several minor leagues around the country.
Amateur competitions include the NCAA College World Series, won most
often by the University of Southern California. Both American and foreign teams
play in the Little League, and young peopleplay in the Little League or Babe Ruth
League.
Famous baseballplayers have included TyCobb, ‘Cy’ Young, ‘Babe’ Ruth,
Lou Gehrig, Jackie Robinson, Joe DiMaggio, Mickey Mantle, Willie Mays, Ted
Williams, and Hank Aaron. All have been chosen for the Baseball Hall of Fame.
12.1.3. Language and culture
Baseball has its own colourful language, such as an Annie Oakley (a free
walk to first base), a Texas Leaguer (a weak hit just over the infield) and a grand
slam (a home run with three runners on bases). Someexpressions are more widely
used. To strike out means to fail, to throw somebodya curve means to trick them
(becausea curve ball deceives the batter), not get to first basemeans to get nothing
done, and to take a rain check is to delay an event (a free rain check to a later
game is given if a game is stopped by rain).
Baseball has entered the national culture in other ways. It is the subject of
an old popular song, Take Me Out to the Ballgame, novels such as Shoeless Joe
(1982) which became the film Field of Dreams (1989), and other films like The
Pride of the Yankees (1942) and The Babe (1992). Baseball caps and shirts are
fashionable in many countries.
(from Oxford Guide to British and American Culture)
12.2. Two kinds of football

to be confused with the football called soccer, is the
American national sport. It developed from the British game of rugby and,
although it is played in no other country in the world (except Canada), it excites
tremendous enthusiasm. Intercollegiate games (games between universities) are
great social occasions. Morethan 100 thousand mothers and fathers, brothers and
sisters, students and football fans from the general public, crowd into the huge,
luxurious stadiums. During a recent college final in the Rose Bowl at Pasadena,
California, there were severe earthquake tremors, but nobody noticed!
Then there is the razzamatazz – the splendidly-trained brass bands, the
teams of pretty girls twirling batons and dressed in fancy costumes who march
like well-drilled soldiers during the half-time show, the cheerleaders urging the
fans to shout encouragement or applaud good play.
The method of scoringin American football is the same as in rugby. Players
try to carry the ball over the opponents’ line, and then to earn more points by
kicking the ball between the upright goal posts above the bar. But that is where
the likeness between the two games ends.
American football has a reputation for being a brutal and dangerous game.
This reputation is not really deserved. The players hurl themselves at each other
fiercely, but today their uniforms and helmets (fitted with visors to protect their
faces) are so skillful padded that there are few serious injuries. By comparison,
the rugby player is almost naked, having only a thin jersey and a pair of shorts to
protect him from his opponents’ boots and tackling.
The football coach is a very important member of the college staff – more
important than the professors, some say! The coach picks promising football
players from the high schools, and recommends that they be given scholarships.
This is the only way some boys from poor families with no intellectual
background can get to college. Quite a few of these students go on to become
professional football players. The names of professional soccerclubs are as well
known to Americans as professional soccer clubs are to Europeans and South
Americans.
The Americans are addicted to crazes. When they take something up, they
do so wholeheartedly, and often the rest of the world follows their lead. Jogging
is an example of this. The Americans now have another craze, a game which most
other countries call ‘football,’ but which they call soccer. Socceris spreading like
wildfire through all the States and gaining in popularity on baseball. It is being
run by big business and TV advertisers, who are doing everything they can to sell
it to the public. They are employing famous fashion designers to design novel

players. They have introduced a musical background to the
games, and there is happening. Most important, they have hired, at enormous
expense, famous coaches and players from Europe and South America. They have
also changed some ofthe rules, including the offside rules to make the game more
exciting.
Soccer games can now draw crowds of over 70 thousand in cities where
baseball attracts a mere 20 thousand spectators. The soccer stadiums are much
more luxurious than the vast majority of European and South American league
grounds. There is a seat for everyone and a parking lot for 25 thousand cars.
Socceris being brilliantly promoted, like any other promising American product.
(from Background to the USA, Richard Musman)
American football
Soccer
12.3. Jazz
12.3.1. Jazz
Jazz is one ofthe greatest forms of music originating in the US. The names
ofits stars, who are mostly African Americans, are known around the world. Most
people have heard of stars like Ella Fitzgerald, ‘Count’ Basie, ‘Duke’ Ellington
and Louis Armstrong. Wynton Marsalis, who plays in the traditional style, is the
best-known jazz musician today.
Jazz was begun in the South by African Americans. Many of its rhythms
came from the work songs and spirituals (= religious songs)of black slaves. New
Orleans street bands first made jazz popular. Early forms of jazz created at the
beginning of the 20th century were ragtime and the blues. Ragtime musicians
included the singer ‘Jelly Roll’ Morton and the composerand piano player Scott
Joplin. Famous blues singers included Bessie Smith and later Billie Holiday.
Dixieland developed from ragtime and the blues and made a feature of
improvisation (= making up the music as it is being played), especially on the
trumpet and saxophone. Dixieland stars included Louis Armstrong and Sidney
Bechet.
Louis Armstrong